Control The Speed Of The DC Motor Engineering Essay

Direct current ( DC ) motor is applied in a broad scope of applications peculiarly in mechanization engineering due to minimum electromotive force ingestion. In the proposal DC motor plays an effectual function in Hardware execution. The chief rule behind the undertaking is to utilize the cascade control to run the DC motor ; it ‘s one of best feedback accountants. For gauging the speed and the armature current of the DC motor with 24 Vs and a dsPIC Microcontroller is programmed.The above all operation is done in a closed control cringle map. Table of Contentss 1.2 Objective 2. Specific Aims of the undertaking Chapter 1 1. Introduction 1.1 Background Brushed DC Motor DC motor theoretical account Digital control of District of Columbia motor Advantages of District of Columbia with regard to rush control Analogue control of District of Columbia motor 2.1 Dss PIC dsPIC30f 3010 2.2 MPLAB IDE 3. Design and Research Cascade control Currentloop kineticss Speed cringle kineticss 3.1 Components for commanding 24v brushed Dc motor 3.1. Flexible upside-down board 3.2.1 Generating PWM moving ridge signifiers 3.1.2 H-Bridge convertor 3.2 Software techniques used in DC motor Programing microcontroller in Flexible inverted board 4. Consequences and Discussion 5. Decision 6. Appendix List of Figures FIGURE 1: Operation of BRUSHED DC Motor FIGURE2: General block diagram of velocity cringle and current cringle of DC Motor FIGURE3: H-bridge convertor with different electromotive force VI ± & A ; VI?Chapter 11. Introduction1.1 ObjectiveThe chief map of the undertaking is to command the velocity of the DC Motor utilizing a dsPIC30f3010 microcontroller. For that implement a separate hardware to fulfill the chief map of the undertaking.1.2 Specific Aim of the undertakingIn order to accomplish the chief nucleus of the undertaking, concept Hardware for commanding the velocity control of DC motor. The chief hardware demands are Ds PIC microcontroller ICD interface & A ; connection for system interface DC power supply MOSFET Current detectors The above constituents are required to build a hardware called Flexible Inverted Board [ 4 ] .1.3 OUTLINE OF PROJECTStep1 In this paper a flexible upside-down board is constructed with the series of hardware constituents Step2 Then pass on the Flexible inverted board with system utilizing MPLAB IDE package with ICD-3 interface [ 4 ] .the linguistic communication used in the MPLAB package is C-language. Step3 The velocity cringle and the current cringle are the two of import maps for commanding the velocity of the Dc motor. In our undertaking the cardinal point is to command both the cringles by C-programming linguistic communication utilizing MPLAB ICD-3. The velocity cringle of the microcontroller is called velocity accountant and the current cringle of the microcontroller is called current accountant.Chapter 2THEORITICAL TECHNIQUES AND THEIR REVIEWS2 Background2.1 Brushed DC MotorIn automotive industries DC motor is used widely in â€Å" fuel pump control, electronic maneuvering control, engine control and electric vehicle control † [ 6 ] for its cost effectual and it is used in many applications like â€Å" mush and paper industries, fan pumps, imperativeness, winder motors † [ 2 ] , † place contraptions, washers, driers and compressors † [ 6 ] are some of the best illustrations. DC motor is one of the of import hardware employed in this paper, it consists of a rotor and stator, and the parts are placed in a lasting magnetic field. Commutator and coppice are placed in between the rotor and stator. Positioning the coppice at a peculiar way in the rotor is classified into some classs and they are â€Å" rad ial, trailling or taking † [ 3 ] places. When the rotor rotates the commutator and C coppice interface at a point, which produces an tremendous sum of magnetic field from the coppice of the motor and it produces current to the armature twist of the Dc motor. FIGURE 1: Operation of BRUSHED DC Motor [ a ]2.2 DC Motor theoretical account [ 8 ]Each motor will hold different specification and demands. Harmonizing to motor demands and inside informations the theoretical account can be designed. The purpose of motor theoretical account, trades with commanding the applied electromotive force of both velocity and current. The basic theoretical account for a Dc Motor is shown below FIGURE2: DC Motor theoretical account The above diagram is a simple RL circuit. RL circuit is called opposition induction circuit and a 24v DC Motor. All these constituents combine to organize RL circuit. Now the derivation portion of the RL circuit is explained below T ( T ) = J tungsten is the Angular speed J is the minute of inactiveness B is the clash T is the armature Torque T ( T ) = ( T ) is the Torque invariable is Armature current Harmonizing to Kirchhoff ‘s jurisprudence ( T ) – ( T ) = ( T ) + and are the induction and opposition for the armature current ( Iowa ) The electromotive of the motor can be determined by multiplying the back voltage with velocity The relationship for the electromotive force is shown below ( T ) = The province theoretical account for any DC motor utilizing Iowa and tungsten ( velocity ) is mentioned below.= +2.3 ds PIC -microchip Ds PIC stands for Programmable Interface Controller or programmable intelligent computing machine, which act as an of import controlling unit for full system. The chief aim of this undertaking is to do the Ds PIC to bring forth 6PWM wave form. In an ideal status the wave form from the pulsation width transition can command the H-bridge convertor. It non merely serves as an interface accountants but besides plays a function of a programmable logic accountant ( PLC ) . [ 16,20 ] Ds movie has a memory of 16bit microcontroller that has two major maps. Firstly it can move as a package portion functioning package maps and the other is a hardware portion functioning hardware maps. The input signals that are attain from the feedback service system are received by the package portion which in bend utilizes the codifications that are written on the bit on C – linguistic communication to analyse the input and run the hardware. Finally the package makes certainly the hardware runs based on the package maps to derive the needed end product. [ 18, 20 ] Our undertaking concentrated on working experiments that were run at lab conditions. Since a twosome of systems have certain differences from the stimulation that have been run in existent conditions compared to ideal conditions. This in bend is the working of the microcontroller. dsPIC30F 3010, 2010 4011 and 3012 are the series of french friess that have been available in the Lab. The missive ‘F ‘ in ds PIC30F and such bit provinces that the bit contains brassy memory. The ground for sing this brassy memory merchandise is because 30F has an ex-ordinary public presentation when compared to EPROM ( Effaceable Programmable Read-Only Memory ) and one clip programmable french friess ( OTP ) . This has been a major demand for the running of this undertaking to acquire the needed end product. 16-bit modified Harvard architecture has been added to the CPU incorporating Ds PIC30F for using the information and upgrading the set of usher lines for running digital signal processing ( DSP ) [ 14 ] . There is a drawn-out flexible opcode field which has been installed in the CPU that has a 24 spot broad user coder memory country and the entire turn toing velocity can travel up to 4MA-24 spot. This programming theoretical account has sixteen 16bit working registries in Ds PIC30F bit. There are two categories of debut commanding unit that have been integrated and used for executing they are integrated and used for executing [ 2 ] .2.3.1 dsPIC30F 3010This subdivision is about the pin constellation and the constituents available in dsPIC30F3010 microcontroller. Normally the memory allotment in dsPIC30F 3010 can classified in to three classs they are SRAM in Bytes EEPROM in Bytes Programmable memory in Bytes/instruction2.3.1.1 SRAMSRAM stands for inactive RAM ( Random Access Memory ) . Harmonizing to the tabular matter shown below the informations bound for inactive RAM should non transcend 1024 bytes. The memory in the map can sort in two types they are X – Datas RAM Y – Datas RAM The inactive RAM uses X -RAM and Y_RAM for hive awaying informations.2.3.1.2EEPROMThe memory allotment for EEPROM is same as inactive RAM. In read merely memory one of the of import types of ROM used to hive away memory is EEPROM. The chief map of this ROM is based on two parametric quantities they are endurance and keeping [ 2 ] . Endurance is to retain the informations even after the ROM fails. Therefore the informations ca n't be deleted at any instant. Time period is required to hive away informations that is taken attention by keeping [ 2 ] .2.3.1.3Program memoryIn a peculiar plan Ds PIC30f microcontroller has a separate memory allotment for hive awaying both the reference and information. The memory bound for the plan memory is 24K. plan reference infinite anda informations reference infinite Table 1: Tabulation for memory allotment in Ds PIC30f3010 The pin constellation of dsPIC30f3010 is described below FIGURE 3: Pin constellation of dsPIC30F 3010 [ 2 ] Pin descriptions ( PWM1L and PWM1H ) , ( PWM2L and PWM2H ) & A ; ( PWM3L and PWM3H ) [ 2 ] these are six different types PWM channels used in the pin constellation. In which each PWM brace generates three responsibility rhythms with one high end product ( H ) and one low end product ( L ) . INT0, INT1 & A ; INT2 are the interrupt buffers used in the PIC. VSS and VDD [ 2 ] are the supply electromotive force and land in the PIC accountant. U1RX & A ; U1TX, U1ARX & A ; U1ATX [ 2 ] are the series of pins used for pass oning PIC microcontroller with Personal computer, in other system interface operation can be done by UART map. In that RX stands for receiving system and TX stands for sender. The above pin map plays an of import in our undertaking.Chapter 3Methodology3.1 Components for commanding 24v brushed Dc motorSince the undertaking is to the full based on difficult ware so many constituents are available and how they work in that operation.3.1.1Cascade control operation in Dc Motor:The below operation is done by utilizing Double cascaded layout, it consists of two cringles they are current accountant with current mention and velocity accountant with velocity mention [ 5 ] as shown in. FIGURE4: General block diagram of velocity cringle and current cringle of DC Motor [ B ] The current cringle is covered by the velocity cringle, in the block diagram it has the two circles interior circle is called interior cringle and the outer circle is called outer cringle since the interior circle operation is ever quicker than the outer circle. In other words interior circle public presentation is multiple of 10 times faster than the staying 1. The cascade control rule is chiefly used in our undertaking to keep the velocity of the motor at a changeless degree and the current cringle in the cascade control is the armature current and it is otherwise called as torsion. Sometimes armature current may transcend the bound to avoid this state of affairs in cascade control, it has limiter, and the chief map of the clipper is to restrict the values of the armature current. For illustration To restrict the armature current to 64volt i.e. 1 ampere. So that the armature wo n't transcend those bounds since the clipper is available in cascade control. The velocity accountant in the cascade control used to bring forth demand current ia* . The motor runs to get the better of the demand current values. The demand current value will ever higher than the normal current values. So that the velocity motor bit by bit increases. PI accountant ( relative Integral accountant ) Current accountant Speed accountant The above all constituents construct a cascade accountant and the map each constituent is described below 3.1.1.1PI accountant ( relative and built-in accountant ) In cascade accountant map assorted accountants are used for observing the velocity and control of the motor, but PI accountant is recommended as high efficient accountant because it consist to constant addition Kip and Kid. By manually tuning the addition of both Kii and Kpi will cut down the steady province mistake and the stableness of the system will be increased. In recent study more than 70 % cascade accountant used PI accountant for commanding the velocity control DC Motor. In order to cut down the steady province mistake in the closed cringle system, bit by bit increase the relative addition changeless Kp. As the addition of the Kp increases the steady province mistake in the system decreases. But the stableness of the system will non be stable. To do the system stable, built-in term Ki is introduced in the system. When both the proportional and built-in term amount each other to cut down the steady province mistake and do the system stable.the above two maps can be done at th e same time in the PI accountant. The mathematical look for PI accountant is explained below. FIGURE 5: PI accountant of a closed cringle map [ 1 ] Kp-proportional addition Ki-Intergral addition Y- Output of the PI accountant Err-Error in the PI accountant At the get downing mistake ( Err ) will go through through both Kp and Ki. For relative addition the end product is Kp Err y1= Kp Err eqn1 [ 1 ] y2 = eqn 2 [ 1 ] Y = y1 + y2 eqn 3 [ 1 ] eqn 4 [ 1 ] The cardinal point in this PI accountant is the mistake Err in intergral addition Ki will be integrated. so that the steady mistake will be reduced and the system will be stable.3.1.1.2Current accountantThe current accountant in the closed cringle maps of the cascade control. The current cringle is besides called as current accountant. It is used to protect cascade circuit from harm. The chief map of the cascade map is to command the velocity. Before commanding the velocity the current of the accountant should be controlled. The current obtained from the closed cringle map is from armature circuit of the DC Motor [ 7 ] .the input in the current accountant is the back voltage ( ia* ) . Power convertor is chiefly used to better the control in the system. It has high exchanging frequence, since the power convertor in the current cringle is really speedy. The end product of the convertor is armature electromotive force ( Va ) . ( -E ) is the perturbation occurred in the current cringle, in order avoid the perturbation -E Iowa ia* RL CIRCUITT Power Converter Pi FIGURE 6: Functional block diagram of Current accountant The perturbation is added along with RL circuit, and the equation is shown below Va = ( S La + Ra ) ia + Tocopherol The map of the RL circuit is cut down complexness Va is Armature electromotive force. Iowa is armature current ( seeking to command ) Ra is Armature opposition Tocopherol is Disturbance RL = 1/ ( S La + Ra ) Current cringle is carried out by conveying the from Iowa ( armature current ) to ia* ( demand armature current ) . As speedy as possible without doing the over shoot acquiring so high. If the over shoot is high it creates job to the convertor. Similarly when the addition values ( Kp and Ki ) increases in PI controller the over shoot value reduces, but the same clip there is more sum of oscillation which may impact the system. Care should be taken in taking both Kp and Ki values. T Iowa ia** FIGURE 7: graph for armature current V subsiding clip ia – Armature current ia* – Demand armature current ts – Settling clip3.1.2 Flexible inverted boardThe major hardware has been designed and implemented as Flexible inverted board. It consists of many constituents they are dsPIC30F3010 microcontroller, H-bridge convertor and District of Columbia motor. The maps of these hardware constituents are explained earlier. The above all operation is implemented in a individual hard ware called flexible inverted board. FIGURE 8: Functional block diagram of Flexible inverted board3.1.2.1 IR2130 gate thrust circuit:There are three input signal generator blocks which are capable of supplying two end products each gives the inputs to the six end product drivers. L1, L2 and L3 are signal generators which drive exactly the three low-side end product drivers although H1, H2 and H3 signal generators must be flat shifted before it is fed to the high-side end product drivers. The drifting points of the driver, gate charge demands of the power switch and the maximal power switch â€Å" ON † times receives power from three bootstrap capacitances C1, C2 and C3. Bootstrap capacitances besides feed supply to the internal natation driver current. Once these energy demands are met there must be considerable sum of charge still on the 8.3V nominal to forestall halting. D7, D8 and D9 should be super-fast. VCC degree seen by an under-voltage sensor circuit gives an input to criminalize six end products of the signal generator circuits. Current detector R1 derives the ITRIP signal in the chief power circuit of the motor when it is segregated with a 0.5 V mention to criminalize the six signal generator end products. ITRIP inputs sets up a mistake logic circuit which in bend gives unfastened drain TTL end product for system gesture. FIGURE 9: Circuit diagram for IR2130 gate thrust circuit3.1.2.2Trim port map with PWMTrim port are little in size and they are really little in size.it is chiefly used in many PCB building board since it ‘s occupies less infinite. The spare port act like a potentiometer and it is otherwise called as pruner [ ] . By tuning the spare port, opposition value can be minimized or maximized. For illustration if a 50ohm opposition can be tuned by spare port from 0 – 50. The two leg of H-bridge convertor produce two pulse wave form one with low end product ( 1L ) and another 1 with high end product ( 1H ) . The responsibility ratio of the PWM wave signifier can set utilizing spare port.3.1.2.3DC MOTOR ENCLOSED WITH A ENCODERThe best methods of ciphering the velocity of the DC motor is utilizing optical encoder method. It consists of a disc, Light Emitting Diode ( LED ) and optical detector [ 6 ] . The disc is fitted with the rotor, as the rotor rotates the disc starts whirling along with the rotor and it is placed in between the LED beginning and the light detector. Once the rotary motion starts the disc passes through the LED beginning and the optical detector gets started, from which the velocity of the motor can be calculated because the optical detector Acts of the Apostless like a tachometer. In other words the encoder in the DC motor is otherwise called as velocity observing detectors. [ 6 ]3.1.2.4 H-Bridge convertorDC motor runs differential v elocity, but the applied electromotive force of the motor varies at every interval of clip. Since the electromotive force is straight relative velocity, as the electromotive force increases the velocity of the motor besides increases. Speed can be calculated by tachometer which is in physique in the DC motors, the applied electromotive force can be supplied and controlled by a convertor called h-bridge convertor. Soman GD – Gate Drive Circuit FIGURE 10: H-bridge convertor with different electromotive force VI ± & A ; VI? [ c ] In this H-bridge circuit it produces two unipolar pulsation breadth transitions because it has two leg inverter. Effective transition takes topographic point merely in the first half of the inverter. As a consequence two variable electromotive forces are generated on either side of the armature twist. In H-bridge, transition index is represented as ( +mi ) and the reciprocal of transition index is represent as ( -mi ) .the motor in our undertaking really sing two pulse breadth. Both the pulsations are reciprocally relative to each other bring forthing a unipolar PWM. The two legs in the convertor are called the shift signals or exchanging frequence. Bigger convertor comparatively has lower frequence and smaller convertor has higher frequence. If the frequence in the leg1 is high in contrast the frequence in the leg2 will be low. In our undertaking see VI ± and VI? are the exchanging channels of the H- span convertor. they are reciprocally relative to each other. The bearer signal is called the input frequence. the bearer frequence used in our undertaking is 10khz. Harmonizing to the bearer frequence the clip period of VI ± and VI? differs. In C coding VI ± and VI? is mentioned as PDC1and PDC2 from the below graph FIGURE 11 graphical representation of PWM signals in H- Bridge convertor. The end product electromotive force of the h-bridge convertor can be obtained both negative and positive electromotive force distribution [ 1 ] . Pulse width transition in the h-bridge convertor helps to command the armature circuit of the DC motor [ 1 ] . Maximal armature current ( torsion ) can be obtained by comparing clip invariable of both field twist and the armature weaving [ 1 ] . Since the motor is connected straight to the field twists supply electromotive force in the field twist is more when compared with the armature weaving. To keep equal clip invariable in both field and armature weaving [ 1 ] , the applied electromotive force in the armature twist should be increased, as the armature current increases the torsion end product is maximized [ 1 ] .3.1.3 Generating PWM moving ridge signifiersAs the torsion end product gets maximized, pulse breadth transition is introduced in the H-bridge system to avoid the perturbation in the armature current.it can be done by increasing the frequence degree of the H-bridge convertor at a higher scope. As the torsion end product gets maximized, pulse breadth transition is introduced in the H-bridge system to avoid the perturbation in the armature current.it can be done by increasing the frequence degree of the H-bridge convertor at a higher scope. FIGURE 12: Diagrammatic representation of the pulsation breadth transition is shown below [ 6 ] The below specification is referred from [ 6 ] Ton – Time is ON ( applied electromotive force ) Toff – Time OFF ( applied electromotive force ) T – Time period. Duty rhythm = . The mean electromotive force of the DC motor can be shown in an equation below Average = Duty rhythm A- Vin [ 6 ] When the motor is running at a changeless velocity the back voltage of the motor is besides remain changeless. As the back voltage remain the same the motor running at changeless velocity and the armature current ( Ia ) is zero. PWM is one chief portion that is required for the operation of cascade control.4. Software used to drive the Motors4.1 Programing microcontroller in Flexible inverted board utilizing C-languageIn the flexible inverter board PIC microcontroller plays a major place in directing the pulsation breadth transition. The Ton clip in the pulsation breadth transition ( PWM ) signal can be modulated or controlled by the microcontroller, as the microcontroller varies the clip, the speed of the motor alterations with regard to clip. The Programing linguistic communication used in microcontroller is embedded C. The scheduling codifications are downloaded in the microcontroller bit, the downloading attack can be done by a package development tool called MPLAB, this package exists in supervising the systems, this package should be foremost installed in the Personal computer, the code rs will compose the codifications to modulate the PI accountant to get Applicable beginning from the current cringle of the cascade control map. Once the codifications are accepted harmonizing to the current cringle [ 1 ] , the plans can be downloaded in the microcontroller through cosmopolitan consecutive coach or in circuit Debugger ( ICD ) ; ICD is a coach which interfaces Personal computer system and the flexible inverter Board. [ 6 ] In order to plan the microcontroller examine whether the hardware constituents are interfaced with the accountant. The scheduling linguistic communication used for programming the accountant is C linguistic communication. In c-language the information ‘s are classified in to input informations and end product informations. The microcontroller direct the information in linear signal, where the C-language wo n't accept linear signals.To avoid the state of affairs ADC convertor and encoder interface are introduced in the system. ADC stands for parallel to digital convertor ; it converts the linear signal in to digital signals. Then the digital signals get received by the C-program as input informations. In turns c-program will direct the end product informations to the PWM unit. UART communicating system is a bidirectional so that microcontroller and Personal computer can pass on at the same time. UART stands for cosmopolitan asynchronous receiving system sender. The basic diagram matic representation for system communicating with C-language is shown below FIGURE 13: System communicating in C – Programing Language. In C-language foremost initialise all the maps required for the velocity control of motor.4.1.1Current detector input:The current in the motor spiral is one of import parametric quantity in the effectual running of the motor. So it is indispensable to mensurate the value of this current. The measuring of the current is performed by utilizing particular detectors call Hall Effect Sensors. The scope of the current is determined by the evaluation of the motor. Any over current in the motor can severely damage the motor. The Hall Effect detectors produce a electromotive force matching to the stage current. This is fed to the ADC inputs of the micro accountant where it is converted into the digital signals. This is so fed into the microcontroller plan. Hence the current demands to be limited within specific limits.CL1, CL2 and CL3 are the three current detectors variables used in this cryptography. The spot ratio of the ADC input is 10 so the input informations scopes from 0 to 1023. The maximal informations bound for the current detector is 1023.so the current detector value in the C- codification is initiated as CL1 = 511 ; CL2 = 511 ; CL3 = 0 ;4.1.2 Encoder input:For any velocity accountant, the existent velocity of the rotor forms the footing for the control signals. The velocity control signal can be changed merely if there is an mistake between the existent velocity of the rotor and the coveted velocity of the rotor. If the measured velocity is less than the coveted velocity so the PWM pulsations are changing consequently to increase the velocity. To execute this action a shaft encoder is used. The shaft encoder uses an opto-mechanical system to bring forth pulsations. These pulsations so are used to deduce the velocity of the rotor. A mention pulsation is used as an index to number the pulsation. This information is fed to the microcontroller, which so uses a particular timing circuit that processes these encoder pulsations. The motor velocity to be accessed by the microcontroller needs to be stored in a variable within the micro accountant codification. The variable used in this plan is a variable called revolutions per minute. This variable is accessed to cipher all maps related to the motor velocity.4.1.3 Pulse Width Modulation:The MOSFET ‘s in the circuit is used as switches. These MOSFET ‘s are switched harmonizing to a PWM. To drive these MOSFETs ‘ a gate driver circuit is required. The gate thrust signal generates the electromotive force required for the operation of these MOSFET ‘s. The PWM is generated by the microcontroller harmonizing to the plan and is supplied to the gate thrust circuit. The PWM signals are sep arate for each if the 3 legs of the MOSFET inverter. Each of the PWM requires a transition index to bring forth the signal. These transition indexes are stored in a registry. The registries are named as PDC1, PDC2, and PDC3. These variables are really important in bring forthing the PWM signals for the MOSFET drivers. Since informations bound is 1023.4.1.4 Initializing the codification in C – linguistic communicationBefore executing any map in C-language, it requires an low-level formatting. It is of import to initialising the variable of a map. Some the maps are initialized below.Init PORT ( )This map initialise the digital input and end product port or parallel input and parallel end product of the microcontroller.Init UART ( )It is one of pin in the microcontroller.The chief map of the UART is used for bidirectional communicating with Personal computer. Since UART can able to observe the transmittal velocity in informations transportation between the microcontroller and Pe rsonal computer. The maximal transmittal velocity is around 19200.the informations transportation wo n't transcend the bound.Init PWM ( )The input frequence of our PWM signal is 10kHz.the clip bound for the transition index is around 0-1474.in the h-bridge convertor has two legs so each leg produces a PWM signal with a maximal clip bound of 0-737. Hence the Ton clip of PWM signal will be in 1:1 responsibility ratio.Init ADC ( )It is used to change over the parallel signals in to digital signals. In the microcontroller there are five pins reserved for the ADC inputs. During the informations transmittal ADC maps plays a of import function in disrupting the signal. An low-level formatting is required for the interrupt to execute any map in C- linguistic communication.Init CAPTURE ( )The gaining control map is chiefly used to mensurate the frequence and clip period of the PWM wave signifier generated from the two legs J30 and J31 pins of the H-bridge convertorInitTimer3 ( ) and InitTime r1 ( )To put initial clip in the microcontroller for the gaining control map and timer 1 set the starting clip for the interrupt map happened in the UART communicating system.Interrupts:Interrupts are occurred merely during the informations transportation, when the transmittal velocity that is the baud rate is known means the interrupts can be added to the system easily.in our undertaking the baud rate is 19200.the chief map of the interrupt is used synchronize clip period of PWM with the velocity cringle and the current cringle of the motor. In our undertaking four different type of interrupt service modus operandi are used. They are ISR_ADCInterput ( ) This interrupt is triggered when the ADC finishes its transition and hence its get synchronized to the microcontroller PWM clip base. From this all the application control codification to be implemented in this interrupts service modus operandi.ISR_T1Interput ( )The assorted information to the Personal computer is transferred by utilizing the UART communicating nexus in this interrupts service modus operandi. All the variables that are needed to be mentioned in this everyday utilizing standard C map dash ( ) .ISR_U1RXInterput ( )Assorted information is transferred from the Personal computer in to the C plan. This everyday concedes us to modulate the facets of the plan when it is running.ISR_IC1Interput ( )It measures the velocity value from clocking informations that are attained in the input gaining control faculty. FIGURE 14 The connexion diagram for the velocity control of Dc motor is shown above Chapter 55 Consequences and treatmentAs discussed earlier the assorted maps of hardware constituents in this undertaking, this subdivision discusses the inside informations sing how the undertaking deals with comparing and measuring the consequences. Undertaking has a series of stairss ; each measure is assigned with different operation techniques to put to death the concluding consequences. 5.1 Initial connexion trial between MPLAB IDE and Flexible inverted Board Initially the system needs to be interfaced utilizing the flexible inverter board. This operation is performed by linking the Personal computer to the flexible upside-down board. To link the Personal computer to the flexible upside-down board, ICD 3 interface port is used to finish the connexion. Since the informations transmittal velocity in ICD 3 is high when compared with ICD 2, the power supply to the inverted board is supplied through the Dc power supply generator. The Initial conditions were set to the power supply generator where the electromotive force bound and current bound is zero. For the Dc motor maximal electromotive force supply is 24voltage in VDC and a current of 0.5 ampere is set in the power supply generator which is so connected to the inverter board. Once the initial conditions are set, the power generator is fitted with a path button which needs to be held and at the same time the end product button needs to be pressed. Once the end product button is turned ON, the power is applied to the inverted board. On the other manus MPLAB IDE package is opened in the system, where a new file demands to be created so the needed compiler for this undertaking needs to be selected. Once these scenes are done the debugger option in the MPLAB ICD 3 is chosen, the package will initialise the tool and a verification message was displayed on the screen which says â€Å" ICD 3 is connected † . The codifications for this were designed in the MPLAB package and burnt in the Ds PIC microcontroller by ICD 3 interface. 5.2 Measure 3, 4 & A ; 5 One of the ADC input pin in the PIC microcontroller demands to be initialize as ADCBUF0. The maximal input scope of ADC interrupt is 1023 since ADC input is initialized as IN1. When IN1 is initialized as ADCBUF0 in C-language it can be written as{IN1 = ADCBUF0 ; PDC1 = IN1 ; IFS0bits.ADIF = 0 ;}Here IN1 is the informations value for the spare port in the flexible upside-down board. The maximal IN1 value is 1023. As mentioned earlier PDC1 is initialized as one leg portion H-bridge convertor, where PDC1 is 1474 and a unipolar pulsation breadth transition was generated. If IFS0bits.ADIF is zero, it means that the chief used to initialise ADIF value is 0 in other words it is the default value. PDC1 = 2*IN1 ; Similarly in measure 4 multiply the spare port input value with 2. Then the PDC1 input scope will transcend so ‘if ‘ statements are used to restrict the value of PDC1 from 0 to 1474. To restrict the values of PDC1 the codification in C-language can be implemented as ; PDC1 = 2*IN1 ; If ( PDC1 & gt ; 1474 ) PDC1= 1474 ; 5.3 Step6 & A ; 7 The flexible upside-down board consists of a gate triggered circuit in other words they are known as MOSFETS. Wholly 6 MOSFETS are available in the flexible upside-down board. In our undertaking two MOSFET are used and both of them are connected to the legs of the H-bridge convertor. The MOSFETS that are connected to H-bridge convertor are ‘U10 and U13 ‘ & As ; ‘U11 and U14 ‘ . To supervise and look into if the MOSFETS are triping the pulsation or non it can be done by analyzing the trial points available in the flexible upside-down board. This is done utilizing the CRO where the trial points are connected via investigations as a consequence triping pulsation is produced. The diagrammatic representation of Square wave signifier is shown below. FIGURE 15The above diagram represents the general pulsation wave form Depending on the transition index value produced by the ADC input the responsibility ratio of the pulse fit transition varies consequently. In other words the transition index is straight relative to the responsibility ratio. Using appropriate C plan the ensuing wave form from the three different responsibility ratios was observed to be in the square form. When the CRO is connected to the trial point J30, three different per centums were obtained due to the different responsibility rhythms. The C codifications that were used to obtain the wave forms are mentioned below: C codification for 50 % responsibility rhythm: PDC1 = MI + 737 ; PDC2 = MI – 737 ; Manual computation for 50 % responsibility rhythm Since PDC1 = 1474 If PDC1/2 = 1474/2 = 737. Resulting wave form for 50 % responsibility rhythm is shown below FIGURE 16 moving ridge from for 50 % responsibility rhythm C codification for 25 % dutycycle: PDC1 = MI + 1105.5 ; PDC2 = MI – 1105.5 ; Manual computation for 25 % dutycycle: ( PDC1 and PDC2 ) value for 50 % responsibility rhythm is 737 ( PDC1 and PDC2 ) value for 75 % responsibility rhythm is 368.5 For 25 % responsibility rhythm add both 737 + 368.5 = 1105.5 Resulting wave form for 25 % dutycycle: FIGURE 17 moving ridge signifier for 25 % responsibility rhythm Code for 75 % dutycycle: PDC1 = MI + 368.5 ; PDC2 = MI – 368.5 ; Manual computation for 75 % responsibility rhythm For PDC1 and PDC2 is 737 Divide PDC1 and PDC2 by 2 The solution for for PDC1 and PDC2 is 368.5. Resulting wave signifier for 75 % dutycycle FIGURE 18 moving ridge signifier for 75 % responsibility rhythm 5.4 Measure 7 The last operation is based on linking the CRO with the trial point J30 in the flexible upside-down board, likewise the same operation is performed in another trial point J31. The triggered pulsation obtained from the MOSFETS is shown below for the different responsibility rhythm ratio as already mentioned in measure 6. Resulting wave form for 25 % responsibility rhythm: FIGURE 19 Resulting wave signifier for 25 % responsibility rhythm in trial point J31 Resulting wave signifier for 50 % responsibility rhythm is shown below FIGURE 19 Resulting wave signifier for 50 % responsibility rhythm in trial point J31 FIGURE 20 Resulting wave signifier for 75 % responsibility rhythm: From above three wave signifiers each differs in their responsibility ratio. Then compare the wave form of J30 & A ; J31. The different is happened because of hold or mistake occurred during the informations transmittal. 5.5 Measure 10 In the initial status of the spare port is set as nothing. Then the responsibility rhythm of the PWM 1 is high and PWM 2 will be low.In other words PWM1 is reciprocally relative to PWM2. Similarly in the ulterior status when the spare port is turning toward the higher terminal. Now the responsibility rhythm of PWM 2 is found to be more than 95 % . The end product of the PWM is determined from the CRO. Since the value of PDC1 and PDC2 will be 1474.due to 1:1 responsibility ratio. The input informations values are every bit shared by both PDC1 and PDC2. In some conditions when the PDC1 = 2*IN1.the value of IN1 is 1023, and so value of PDC1 is 2046. As per the conditions mentioned earlier the value should non transcend the input informations bound 1474. Such state of affairs are handled with aid of if statements. Using if statement how the status is satisfied in C cryptography PDC1 = 737+MI ; PDC2=737-MI ; If ( PDC1 & gt ; 1474 ) PDC1 = 1474 ; If ( PDC2 & gt ; 1474 ) PDC2=1474 ; This codification C2=1474-PDC1 makes the motor to revolve at rearward way. When the above codification is compiled and executed the electric resistance value increased or decreased by manually tuning the spare port in the flexible upside-down board. Harmonizing to the opposition value in the microcontroller the amplitude and the current flow can be controlled. 5.6 Measure 11 Ripple current and RL Load Now connect the RL burden with the connection of the flexible upside-down board to cipher the ripple current. In the connection of the flexible inverted board has two points. They are sing as point A and point B. Ripple current can be calculated by a device called current investigation. First connect the current investigation to the point A of the connection and view the mean value of the ripple current in the CRO. The wave form for the mean ripple current value for point A is shown below. FIGURE 21 moving ridge signifier for responsibility cycle1 with 1H and duty rhythm 2 1L ( indicate A ) 1H – High End product 1L – Low End product In this wave form the conditions are wholly reversed when compared with the above wave form. The responsibility rhythm 1 with 1L and duty rhythm 2 with 1H ( indicate A ) FIGURE 22 moving ridge signifier for responsibility cycle1 with 2L and duty rhythm 2 1H ( indicate A ) Once the rippling currents are calculated in point A. the similar operation is performed by the current investigation in point B. the wave forms are shown below FIGURE 23 wave form for responsibility cycle1 with 1H and responsibility cycle2 with 1L ( point B ) FIGURE 24 wave form for responsibility cycle1 with 2L and responsibility cycle2 with 2H ( point B ) 5.7 Measure 12 This measure deals with ciphering the beginning and derive value of ripple current through current investigation as discussed earlier. These values are chiefly used for trying the input informations ‘s from the microcontroller. In order to cipher the beginning and addition value the values need to be identified as shown in the tabular matter below they are ; ADC electromotive force, current detector, PDC1 and PDC2. Initially the interface needs to be reloaded with the flexible upside-down board. The PDC1 and PDC2 value can be determined by the ticker option in MPLAB IDE package. The current detector in the flexible inverted board has a trial point J43. Then the current detector value was measured by multi metre through the trial point. For this a 24 electromotive force Dc motor the maximal current detector value gettable will be 2.57voltage. Initially set the spare port value to zero, so look into the current detector value by a multi metre where it showed 2.57. By increasing the electric resistance of the spare port the current detector and ADC electromotive force will be bit by bit decreased nevertheless at one phase the ADC electromotive force bit by bit decreases to zero. Later the ADC electromotive for ce value increased easy but the current detector invariably decreased as shown in the tabular matter. These values were recorded in the tabular matter. Subtracted ADC electromotive force value from PDC1 value and the mean value consequence was recorded in the new column. Then the mean value for the new column is calculated. Table 2 Tabular column for ciphering beginning and addition values ADC electromotive force Current detector PDC1 PDC2 PDC2 – ADC electromotive force Spot 27.51 2.569 41 1433 13.49 4.46039 25.43 2.559 143 1331 117.57 21.79 2.544 283 1191 261.21 20.51 2.527 444 1030 423.49 17.79 2.517 546 928 528.21 0.0007 2.497 757 717 756.9993 3.72 2.478 960 514 956.28 4.07 2.462 1123 351 1118.93 18.4 2.43 1431 43 1412.6 5588.7793 620.9754778 Manual computation for the above tabular matter is shown below Offset spot = ( PDC1 – ADC electromotive force ) / entire figure values ( PDC1- ADC electromotive force ) = 13.49 + 117.57 + 261.21 + 528.21 + 756.9993 + 956.28 + 1118.93 + 1412.6 = 5588.7793 PDC1-ADC electromotive force = 5588.7793 Entire figure of values = 9 Average ( PDC1 – ADC electromotive force ) = 5588.7793/9 = + 620.9754778. Calculate the entire ADC electromotive force Entire ADC electromotive force =27.51 + 25.43 + 21.79 + 20.51 + 17.79 + 0.0007 + 3.72 + 4.07 + 18.4 = 132.5 Offset spot = + 620.9754778./ 132.5 = 4.4602 spot 5.8 Measure 13 In this subdivision connect 24 volt Dc motor to the flexible upside-down board. When the power supply is turned ON the motor rotates at a peculiar velocity and this velocity of the motor rotates harmonizing to the responsibility ratio produced by the H-bridge convertor. Initially test all the conditions to verify the on the job status of the motor. The motor used here is fitted with an encoder that is attached together. Since the flexible inverted board has an encoder sensor the encoder portion of the motor was connected to the encoder sensor, therefore the motor satisfies the conditions mentioned above.5.9 Measure 14In this measure, J14 pin of the flexible upside-down board is interfaced together with the system through a overseas telegram. Using Lab position package ‘s the Tacho scope, RPM can be determined. PDC1, PDC2 and their corresponding responsibility rhythm per centum are viewed. Like this similar operation Table 3 Tabular column for ciphering electromotive force Vs velocity Tacho Vdc Revolutions per minute PDC1 PDC2 Duty 1 % Duty 2 % 1 -18.1 1776 150 1324 89.2 11.2 2 -14.5 1416 270 1204 81.1 19.9 3 -10.71 1047 388 1087 73.3 27.1 4 -7.46 727 482 992 66.5 35.5 5 -3.42 334 596 878 58 42 6 0 95 714 760 50 49.6 7 1.69 165 826 648 45.6 54.4 8 5.5 538 941 532 38.2 62.2 9 9.33 919 1049 423 29.8 70.1 10 12.9 1265 1155 320 22.3 72.9 11 16.1 1578 1256 219 15.5 85.5 12 19.6 1919 1374 97 9 92 RPM = K To cipher the value of the K K = Vdc12 – Vdc1/RPM12 – RPM1 K = 19.6-18.1/1919 – 1776 K = 0.0104 As per the demands from the tabular matter secret plan the graph for Vdc ( electromotive force ) V RPM The graph representation is shown below FIGURE 25 Voltage Vs Speed5.10 Measure 155.10.1Current cringleOnce the mean value of the ripple current and the beginning values are calculated, to command the velocity of the motor, foremost the applied electromotive force of the motor should be controlled. Interestingly the applied electromotive force can be determined from the current cringle of the relative and Built-in accountant in other words as PI accountant. Since the operation of PI accountant is explained before itself. In the PI accountant current plays the interior cringle, and it is 10 times faster than the outer cringle. So the interior cringle is executed foremost. A measure input given to the PI accountant. The consequence expected from the end product of the PI accountant as a measure end product with extremum over shoot. This extremum over shoot increases the steady province mistake besides increases. In bends steady province mistake produces a electromotive force bead in the motor. So the velocity of the motor bit by bit decreases. This state of affairs can be overcome by seting the addition of both relative and built-in. The maximal extremum over shoot degree is 7.5 % . If the degree exceeds, the end product of the current cringle is non in a stable status. If the system is non stable, it is hard to command the velocity of the motor. the graphical representation of the expected current cringle is shown below. FIGURE 26 measure response end product for current cringle In the above measure response the ia* and Iowa are the demand current and the armature current. Since the current detector value 1023. Two current detectors are used. They CL1 and CL2 The armature current Iowa = 511 Demand current ia* = 511 Tocopherol is the mistake E = demand current – armature current E = ia* – Iowa E = 511 – 511 = 0 ; Harmonizing to the computation shown above.The codification is compiled in C-language for the current cringle. In the cryptography First originate the addition values of the PI accountant as kpi and kii. int kpi, kii ; kpi=10 ; kii=0 ; Then initialise the mistake, armature current and demand current as i_error, Iowa and ia_demand int Iowa, ia_demand, i_error ; Iowa = CL1 ; ( initialise current detector 1 as armature current of the motor ) CL1 = 511 ; ( initialise the value of current detector 1 as 511 ) ia_demand = 511 ; ( demand armature current ) i_error = ia_demand – CL1 ; ( Error in the armature current can be determined by deducting the armature currenr ( Iowa ) from the demand armature current ( ia* ) . The expected mistake should be zero. when the above codification is executed in MPLAB package. In the get downing the mistake is non zero. Some clip the current detector value differs. As per the codification the expected CL1 value should 511. In this status, a new set of codification is implemented. In this codification, if statements are used for the CL1 value. Then the current detector value will be within the scope. if ( 510 & lt ; CL1 & A ; & A ; CL1 & lt ; 517 ) the value CL1 ranges from ( 511 to 517 ) The manual tuning of kpi and kii alterations CL1 from 511 to some other value. As a consequence mistake occurs in the extremum over shoot. For illustration if CL1 is 514, which is displayed on the ticker of MPLAB Since the expected CL1 is 511 but CL1 is 514 The mistake difference between the expected and the present value is 3. The avoid the mistake difference in CL1 a simple codification is designed below CL1 = CL1 -3 ; ( if CL1 is 514, 514 – 3 is 511 ) . The mistake is zero but the extremum over shoot is still high. This is due built-in air current up map because the built-in added with kii in PI accountant. To avoid this mistake separate codification is executed in C cryptography. The variable zi is initialized as built-in collector and its value is 737. if ( zi & gt ; 737 ) zi=737 ; if ( zi & lt ; -737 ) zi=-737 ; the above codification keeps the zi value within the scope. Since i_error = 511 zi = 737 + 511 zi = zi+i_error ; ( anti air current up codification added with an mistake ) In order to avoid the built-in mistake multiply built-in collector with built-in addition ( kii ) . kii * zi ( eqn 1 ) Multiply the mistake with the addition of proportional. kpi * i_error ( eqn 2 ) add both the eqn to acquire the concentrated transition index. This map will cut down the steady province mistake and extremum over shoot. myocardial infarction = ( kpi*i_error ) + ( kii*zi ) ; From this codification the expected extremum over shoot is obtained with zero steady province mistake. The expected current cringle moving ridge signifier implemented from the codification is shown below In this moving ridge signifier over shoot is high. To cut down the over shoot and stead province mistake manually tune the kpi and kii value. Manual tuning is like a loop method to acquire a peculiar solution after many comparings take topographic point between kpi and kii values. The expected end product is non yet determined. So the expected end product is still under procedure.Mention[ 1 ] D.J.Atkinson, â€Å" Control of Electric thrusts, † EEE 8014 talk notes, School of electrical, electronic and Computer technology, Newcastle University,2011. [ c ] [ 2 ] R.Roberge, â€Å" Carbon coppice public presentation and application in the mush and paper environment † , National Electrical Carbon Products, 2001. [ 6 ] E.A.CHOON, â€Å" DCmotor velocity control utilizing microcontroller pic16f877a † , 2005, pp. 1-64. [ 3 ] K.Hameyer, R.J.M.Belmans, â€Å" Permanent magnet excited brushed DC motors † Dept. of Electrical. Engineering. Katholieke University, Vol. 43, 1996, pp. 247-255 [ a ] CONDIT, R. ( 2004 ) Brushed DC Motor Fundamentals Microchip Technology Inc. [ 5b ] P.Chevrel, L.Sicot, S.Siala, â€Å" Switched LQ accountant for DC Motor Speed and Current Control: a comparing with cascade control † , 1996. [ 4 ] G.J.Atkinson, â€Å" Electrical Power and Control Project, † EEE8075 ( Semester 1 ) talk notes, School of electrical, electronic and Computer technology, Newcastle University, 2011. [ 7 ] M.V.Ramesh, J.Amarnath, S.Kamakshaiah, G.S.Rao, â€Å" SPEED CONTROL OF BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR BY USING FUZZY LOGIC PI CONTROLLER † ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences.Vol.6, NO. 9, 2011. [ 8 ] R. K. Munje, M. R. Roda, B. E. Kushare, â€Å" Speed Control of DC Motor Using PI and SMC † IPEC, 2010 Conference Proceedings, 2010, pp.945- 950. DS movie mention [ 2 ] . ( 2010 ) dsPIC30f3010 Data Sheet. Microchip Technology Inc. [ 16 ] .D'SOUZA, S. ( 2004 ) detector less BLDC Motor Control Using dsPIC30f2010. Microchip Technology Inc. [ 18 ] . ELLIOTT, C. & A ; BOWLING, S. ( 2004 ) Using the dsPIC30F for mindless BLDC control. IEEE Inc. [ 20 ] . HUDDLESTON, C. ( 2007 ) Intelligent detector design utilizing the micro chip Ds PIC [ electronic resource ] / by Creed Huddleston. , Elsevier/News. Tabulation J. Plantier, H. Aziza, J.M. Portal, C. Reliaud, A. Regnier, J.L. Ogier, â€Å" EEPROM tunnel oxide life-time dependability anticipation based on fast electrical emphasis trials † ELECTRONICS LETTERS Vol. 46 No. 23, 2010. Tang Yiliang, Cui Wenjin, Xie Xiaorong, Han Yingduo, Man-Chung Wong â€Å" 80Cl96MC Microcontroller-based Inverter Motor Control and IR2130 Six-output IGBT Driver † Department of Electrical Engineering and Faculty of Science and Technology, 1999, pp.665-667. [ FIGURE9 and 3.1.2.1 ] David Cook â€Å" CHAPTER 14 Variable Resistors ROBOT Building FOR BEGINNERS † , 2010, pp 173-191. [ trimport ]

Overseas Students Participate in Cultural Activities Essay

Cultural activities are activities where people spend their leisure time attending cultural venues and events. For example, cultural activities include going to art galleries, museums, libraries, operas, concerts and the cinema. People want to get feelings of well-being and gain more knowledge by participating in cultural activities. Participation in cultural activities influences the development of students in many aspects, such as for entertainment and knowledge. The involvement of students in cultural activities can help them develop a well-rounded education. For overseas students in Australia, participating in native cultural activities can also help them reduce culture shock and provide a better way for students to understand more information concerning the history, customs and beliefs in Australia. In a survey concerned with participation in cultural activities among Australian people, it was found that about 85% of the Australian people who aged over 15 years old participated in at least one of cultural activity during the 12 months in 2005-06 (Australian Bureau of Statistics) (ABS) (2007). Going to the cinema was the most popular activity which had the highest percentages at 65% of people. Going to zoological parks and aquariums were the two second most common activities, at 36%; libraries and botanic gardens were at 34% (ABS, 2007). In addition, the same study found that people with higher educational background had considerably higher attendance rates than people with lower educational attainment at art galleries, museums, zoological parks and aquariums, libraries, popular music concerts, other performing arts and the cinema. Moreover, in previous research, it was found that about 25% of respondents went to the library over 20 times during the year. (ABS, 2007). However, little research has been done to compare differences in participation in cultural activities between overseas students in Australia and Australian people. The aim of this research is to find out whether overseas students’ cultural activity behaviors were similar to Australians. Methodology This research was carried out in Navitas English language school on 10th December 2010, and was concerned about the participation in cultural activities of overseas students. Data were collected through questionnaires in the school. The participants consisted of 50 overseas students (25 males and 25 females), who were aged between 18-24 and 25-34, just one person was over 35. The majority of the sample were Chinese; other subjects were from Thailand, Vietnam, Korea, Indonesia, and Japan. The questionnaire, which was administered informally and contained 8 questions, was made up of three sections: demographic information, the type and the frequency of cultural activities. Specifically, 4 questions were developed to record general information; one question was about which cultural activities students participated in; the other 3 items asked about how often students participated in cultural activities per year, involving all cultural activities, going to the library and cinema. The survey was conducted by several groups; each group consisted of 2-3 students. These groups respectively entered different classes to collect data using questionnaires. After collecting this, the data was shared by all groups. Data from questionnaires were then collated and converted to percentages. The results were compared according to gender, education and frequency in graphs.

Bruce Lee Speech

Gangs ruled the city streets and Lee was often forced to fight them. Bruce’s street fighting began to escalate * Eventually, Lee’s father decided for him to leave Hong Kong to pursue a safer and healthier avenue in the United States New Life in America While in the United Lee abandoned thoughts of a film career in favor of pursuing martial arts but a martial arts exhibition on Long beach led to the invitation for the role of Kato in the Green Hornet and many other movies including the big Boss which was a big success and catapulted him to stardom. Followed by Fist of Fury and Way of the Dragon where he was given complete control of the film’s production as the writer, director, star, and choreographer of the fight scenes. * In 1964 Lee had met Karate champion Chuck Norris. * In the movie Way of the Dragon He introduced Norris as his opponent in the final death fight. Today considered one of Lee’s most legendary fight scenes and one of the most memorable fight scenes in martial arts film history Essentially bruce lee became obsessed with martial arts and fitness FITNESS AND NUTRITION * HIs interpretation of keeping in shape was constant daily workouts. His workout consisted of three categories: martial arts sparring, weight training, and extensive AB training. * The workout first consists of hours upon hours of martial arts sparring. Secondly, a series of heavy weight training of his main muscles. Finally, is his extensive workout towards his ABs. Bruce Lee’s favorite muscle was his ABs and whenever he had time, such as watching TV, he would do sit-ups or crunches. Bruce Lee had what most people called â€Å"washboard ABs† and was not afraid to show it, you can see this in almost every fight scene he had in his films. * PHYSICAL FEATS: Lee could land a punch in around five hundredths of a second (0. 05 second) from 3 feet away * Lee could snatch a dime off a person’s open palm before they could close it, and leave a penny behind * Lee performed one-hand push-ups using only the thumb and index finger Bruce not only took care of his body by working out but as well as having a proper nutrition. Lee took nutrition seriously and his diet consisted high-protein drinks, vitamins, mineral supplements, green veggies and fruit every day. UNFORTUNATELY HE SUFFERED A SUDDEN DEATH ON DEATH AND LEGACY: * On July 20, 1973, just one month before the premiere of  Enter the Dragon, Bruce Lee died in Hong Kong at the age of 32. The official cause of his sudden and unexpected death was a brain edema, found in an autopsy to have been caused by a strange reaction to a prescription painkiller he was reportedly taking for a back injury. Controversy surrounded Lee’s death from the beginning, as some claimed he had been murdered. Summary: * Bruce Lee, pound for pound, was arguably the greatest fighter of our time. Twenty-four years after his death, he remains the standard by which all other fighters are measured. His passion, skill, charisma, philosophy, and innovative martial arts concepts brought him worldwide acclaim– incredibly, all by the age of 32. In such a short span, Lee managed to accomplish more than most of us will ever achieve in our lives. Bruce Lee Speech Gangs ruled the city streets and Lee was often forced to fight them. Bruce’s street fighting began to escalate * Eventually, Lee’s father decided for him to leave Hong Kong to pursue a safer and healthier avenue in the United States New Life in America While in the United Lee abandoned thoughts of a film career in favor of pursuing martial arts but a martial arts exhibition on Long beach led to the invitation for the role of Kato in the Green Hornet and many other movies including the big Boss which was a big success and catapulted him to stardom. Followed by Fist of Fury and Way of the Dragon where he was given complete control of the film’s production as the writer, director, star, and choreographer of the fight scenes. * In 1964 Lee had met Karate champion Chuck Norris. * In the movie Way of the Dragon He introduced Norris as his opponent in the final death fight. Today considered one of Lee’s most legendary fight scenes and one of the most memorable fight scenes in martial arts film history Essentially bruce lee became obsessed with martial arts and fitness FITNESS AND NUTRITION * HIs interpretation of keeping in shape was constant daily workouts. His workout consisted of three categories: martial arts sparring, weight training, and extensive AB training. * The workout first consists of hours upon hours of martial arts sparring. Secondly, a series of heavy weight training of his main muscles. Finally, is his extensive workout towards his ABs. Bruce Lee’s favorite muscle was his ABs and whenever he had time, such as watching TV, he would do sit-ups or crunches. Bruce Lee had what most people called â€Å"washboard ABs† and was not afraid to show it, you can see this in almost every fight scene he had in his films. * PHYSICAL FEATS: Lee could land a punch in around five hundredths of a second (0. 05 second) from 3 feet away * Lee could snatch a dime off a person’s open palm before they could close it, and leave a penny behind * Lee performed one-hand push-ups using only the thumb and index finger Bruce not only took care of his body by working out but as well as having a proper nutrition. Lee took nutrition seriously and his diet consisted high-protein drinks, vitamins, mineral supplements, green veggies and fruit every day. UNFORTUNATELY HE SUFFERED A SUDDEN DEATH ON DEATH AND LEGACY: * On July 20, 1973, just one month before the premiere of  Enter the Dragon, Bruce Lee died in Hong Kong at the age of 32. The official cause of his sudden and unexpected death was a brain edema, found in an autopsy to have been caused by a strange reaction to a prescription painkiller he was reportedly taking for a back injury. Controversy surrounded Lee’s death from the beginning, as some claimed he had been murdered. Summary: * Bruce Lee, pound for pound, was arguably the greatest fighter of our time. Twenty-four years after his death, he remains the standard by which all other fighters are measured. His passion, skill, charisma, philosophy, and innovative martial arts concepts brought him worldwide acclaim– incredibly, all by the age of 32. In such a short span, Lee managed to accomplish more than most of us will ever achieve in our lives.

Service Quality in University Education Literature review

Service Quality in University Education - Literature review Example 1994, 45). The Literature review attempts to illuminate the available pool of knowledge pertinent to the contemporary Graduate Employability discipline, analyze the works, and identify existing gaps with special emphasis on a University setup. The identification of such gaps could motivate the study to enhance the availability of knowledge on Graduate Employment (Jean, W. 2010, 311). Conceptual Framework The fundamental variables of the study include the students, employers and the University, including the student link and the university lecturers. In particular, the study is predominantly projected to focus on the disparity between what graduates primarily consider fundamental for employment and what employers believe the students actually need (Page, B. 2010, 117). This implies that there is also a lack in correspondence between the skills offered by the University and the actual skills required by the learners. The literature review, therefore, illuminates the 7P’s of qual ity services, the SERVQUAL, GAPs, and the HEDPERF versus SERVPERF Models of Service Quality based on a wide range of both recent and early professional studies associated with Graduate employability and employee-employer interest disparity (Real, S. 2009, 56). Graduate Employability The concept of Graduate Employability virtually alludes to the graduates’ practicality and probability of getting suitable jobs based on the conflict between the skills and knowledge acquired in class and the expectations of the employers. The 7P’s of quality services, the SERVQUAL, GAPs, and the HEDPERF versus SERVPERF Models of Service Quality expansively address the concern (Ray, W. 2009, 47). A series of articles have been reviewed as discussed below. In most establishments today, marketing authorities make use of a business tool known as the marketing mix to limit a product’s offer. This tool incorporates the 7Ps of quality service namely promotion, place, product, price, people , process and physical evidence (Zeal, C. 2009, 118). According to Jalan (2005), a product is any tangible or intangible commodity that meets the needs of a consumer. All products trail a common life progress incorporating the growth, maturity and sale decline stages. To this end, marketing professionals ought to carry out adequate research on the period a particular product would take to reach the decline stage. Similarly, in a University setup, the administrators who are the service-providers in the context must scrutinize all services they provide to ensure that the students, who are the customers in the context, have their demands satisfied. In this realization, all services that appear to be of lower quality than is expected must be dismissed and appropriately replaced by suitable programs. On the other hand, Hoffman and John (2009) suggest that every marketer should take client perceived worth of a product into consideration before setting any price. In this perspective, the u niversity must set service prices including tutorial fees depending on the students’ perception of the services or courses in particular. In addition, the text also encourages effective promotion and distribution (place) of the products. The process of service

Beowulf Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 10

Beowulf - Essay Example Half a century after the battle with Grandel’s mother Beowulf is faced with another battle, which involves a dragon whose golden cup had been stolen; together with Wiglaf, Beowulf defeats the monster, however he later dies due to the wounds inflicted on him (Zemeckis, 2007). The movie was made during a time when the Angles and Saxons were migrating to England between the late 5th century to early 7th century. During this time, the people were obsessed with legends who could protect them from supernatural beings such as the monsters. During this period, scholars were creating stories that involved both historic events and fictious ones therefore, it was difficult to determine where they set boundaries between fiction and reality in their stories. The culture of the people during the period when the movie was made can be found from how the characters have been portrayed in the film, for instance, the inclusion of fictional characters and events such as the dragon and the fight with the dragon show that the people in this period were highly superstitious. In addition, the movie was created from a manuscript that is thought to have been passed down through oral traditions showing some of the ways that the society at that time used to preserve their history. The action of Beowulf to go and help Hroogar show that the communities at those times were closely knit, as they were ready to help each other freely. The happening s during the time when the movie was made must have influenced the director since the way he has depicted the characters shows a setting that can be associated with ancient times. Although the movie was released in 2007, the director has used graphics that portray the cast and the location as those in the period when the movie was made. In the movie the director has also used the names of characters that existed during the period when the movie was made therefore

Morality and the Media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Morality and the Media - Essay Example In other words, just as Thomas Jefferson said, the price of freedom is eternal vigilance. The question is who gets to be in the place of the watchman. In Victor Clines essay, he approaches the topic of free speech in media, even when it crosses lines which are traditionally held by moral peoples, in a manner that attempts to strip the moral issues from the essential freedom of speech. Cline approaches the issue of free speech within the media, and the question of setting boundaries on this free speech when it crosses these accepted moral limits, as if the people themselves set the moral boundaries within which they define acceptability. The argument insists that if one group of people feels that this particular expression of pornography or violence is morally wrong, and therefore should warrant censorship, then another group should be able to choose that the same expression is acceptable, and allowable within the boundaries of free speech. And so the argument continues. Media producers have, in my opinion, been allowed to hide behind the veil of free speech by court decisions which have attempted to approach a moral issue from an amoral framework.

Addiction From Historical Perspective Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Addiction From Historical Perspective - Essay Example The story of drug addiction actually begins with the opium wars in China and the fight between the Chinese and the English. The English actually brought opium to China as a way to trade something to them that China did not have and to have an alternative to using silver. In 1839, opium had been outlawed by the government of China to only be used for medicine. However, the British were able to purchase cheap opium and bring it into the country through the British East India Company (Allingham, 2006). Suddenly opium was available everywhere and although it started out as something that only the rich could afford, it quickly spread to about 90% of males under the age of 40 in the coastal regions of China. This had a direct impact on business, civil service and the standard of living; they all were falling apart (Allingham, 2006). Lin Ze-xu (1785-1850), the then appointed anti-opium commissioner estimated that about four million people were addicted to opium; however, a British physician working in the area stated that the addiction was more likely to be 12 million (Allingham, 2006). By 1837, opium was a larger import than any other traded commodity. Wars broke out over the sale and use of opium because of the trade laws that were enacted upon the British. By 1773, opium was traded globally but the British Governor-General of Bengal created a monopoly on the sale of opium and continued to sell Indian opium to China regardless of the rules that China had established for trade. By 1797, opium was eliminated in Bengal, but by the late 19th century, Bengal’s opium was being grown, processed and exported in Bengal (McCoy, n.d.). Alcohol Addiction Begins to be Seen More Often Although alcoholism goes back to biblical days, it has always depended on social trends. Usually, alcohol was a part of every ceremony and every culture. Alcohol was used during the colonial period and was used both as a beverage and as a medicine. The early colonists allowed drunkenness as l ong as it did not interfere with an individual’s ability to work and make a living (Anonymous, 2009). By the mid to late 19th Century, people stopped trying to control the individual’s behavior to trying to control the consumption of alcohol. As social problems like crime and poverty began to take its toll on the society at large, the social reform movement began to attempt to stop the sale of alcohol. Most people will remember that the Temperance Movement was set to eliminate all of alcohol but of course this did not work because people continued to make their own alcohol. By 1930s, American â€Å"alcohol science† was recreated and in this decade Alcoholics Anonymous had also begun (â€Å"History†, 2009). The Use of Patent Medicine The use of patent medicines during the 18th and early 19th Century was a precursor to drug regulations. These first medicines had substances like cocaine or heroin in them and the consumers who bought them did not know that th ese drugs could harm them. Patent medicines were sold as elixirs and tonics that could cure many illnesses whether the consumer was an adult, a child or an infant (Drug Addiction, 2010). Many of these medicines were said to cure tuberculosis and arthritis and many people began to take these remedies which lead to addiction. At that time addiction was unknown and there were no restrictions on their use. Many people ended up losing their lives or having them destroyed because of their use of these remedies. Many early doctors saw that these remedies were actually not helping the ailment and that they were creating addictions instead. However, the patent medicine makers protested any laws that were put in place to stop them from selling the medicines. Eventually, these drugs were stopped once journalists began to talk about

Comparing Fordism and Scientific Management (Taylorism) Research Paper

Comparing Fordism and Scientific Management (Taylorism) - Research Paper Example In order to run a successful industry, call for a systematic study of the labor force and productivity. In order to make rational and sound comparisons of these theories, it is crucial to understand their economic sense that informed their designs. Fredrick Taylor is considered the father of scientific theory, as theorized in the late 1880s and 1890s; the theory has significantly impacted positively to economics on labor and production (Neilson and Rossiter 69). Taylor motivation was based on the need to have a new dimension in the production process1. After the era of rule of thumb where employees were subjected to forceful long working hours, Taylor observed that despite the long working hours, there was little reflection on the productivity. Before coming up with scientific theory, he studied employees pattern in jobs such as movement and time wastage. He recognized there was a lot of time wastage and the unskilled approach used was ineffective. Certainly, the theory was founded after systematic identification of production and output mismatch. The analysis paid attention to rationality, work ethics, standardization and removal of wasteful processes in the entire industrial processes. This harsh economic background informed his suggestion on training each employee and selecting them to undertake the best-suited jobs. In addition, the emphasis on efficiency through utilization of relevant skills and knowledge culminated into the scientific model that is relevant to modern economics and management. This theory developed substantially in 1930s following a shift in European economies to the use of machines and equipment in industrial processes (Kluvert 160). According to Charles Maler, the theory developed from its predecessor Taylorism, a suggestion that focused on organizational productivity through enhancing creativity and innovation in each process. As efficiency continued to dominate economists vocabulary, Fordism

How Managers Support the Company's Goals Assignment

How Managers Support the Company's Goals - Assignment Example Caleta CO’s biggest strength lies in the innovation of products which has expanded its market share and made them global leaders in the business. The company has managed to hire the best talent pool in the country by providing them with the best compensation in the industry and above industry standard benefits. John believes in recruiting the best, paying them the best, and keeping them satisfied with other benefits in the best way possible. He was not wrong, as this talent pool has led to the success of the company through their innovation. However, John is now faced with the challenge of a reduction in employee costs and ensure better working conditions in Mexico and Vietnam.   John sits down to list the following:- To make a list of all managers who have spearheaded teams to break into new markets and expand the range of RFID products which has increased the turnover of the company. John will present this to the board to convince that he has hired the right talent and the right talent requires monetary motivation to innovate.- Aware that the innovation of products has led to the growth of the company John has decided to pool the innovative team together and the compensation and benefits program for this team will remain unchanged.- On the other hand, reductions will be made in the current size of the HR department. Tracking their performances through feedback forms from the employees. The 17 specialists who test and recruit managers will be tracked against the performance of the recruits to ensure the right candidate is receiving the right compensation.- Most importantly to rework the current organizational structure to see excesses to the right size.- HR associates to be given additional responsibility to expose managers to the new HRIS system with timelines to complete and convince the managers to use them. This will lead to a reduction in HR resources and lower cost.- The best compensation in the industry comes with the best performance standards . Weed out the non-performing 10% in the company.- To recruit HR associates in Mexico and Vietnam to ensure a personal touch which also saves cost, as traveling from the US and the cost of hiring an HR associate in the US is 10 times higher. Ensure that the HR associate in that country is in charge of maintaining safety and health standards prevalent in that country. OR to explore HR outsourcing companies to take care of the HR management in Vietnam and Mexico if feasible and turn out to be a huge cost saving for the Corporation.

The Actual Meaning of Being Educated Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Actual Meaning of Being Educated - Essay Example The essay evaluates the question regarding the actual meaning of being educated. There has always been a debate on the topic regarding classification of people as educated and otherwise but such debates have not yielded a consensus yet. The most common perception regarding being educated is having knowledge of different subjects that are taught in schools, however in accordance with different philosophers, being educated is just not having knowledge of certain subjects but it has a greater meaning. Theories regarding education have been presented by a number of philosophers and the theories presented stretch over a vast lapse of time. The ultimate goal of the educational philosophy is to get students interested in the subject and cause them be on familiar terms with it as well. To achieve it a teacher is to set several goals such as: to be persuasive, to make students respect the teacher, to know the subject well, to have friendly relations with students, to create a perfect learning environment, and to create a proper curriculum. â€Å"Education - like democracy, free markets, freedom of the press, and "universal human rights" - is one of those subjects whose virtue is considered self-evident†.   â€Å"A successful education process embraces the notion of a proper curriculum.† Reece & Walker considers a Scheme of Work to be â€Å"a series of learning experiences, sequenced to achieve the course aims in the most effective way†. Thus it is vital to set the course goals, the length and the system of total evaluation.   

Types of schools Essay Example for Free

Types of schools Essay 1. Community Schools Run by LA’s who own both the land and buildings and are responsible for employing the staff. The LA decides the schools’ admissions criteria for the allocation of places should the school be oversubscribed. These schools are supported by the community and as such the school facilities are used by local groups such as adult education and childcare classes. 2. Foundation and Trust schools Foundation schools are run by their own governing body who employ the staff and determine the admissions policy in conjunction with the LA. The governing body (or charitable foundation) owns the school and the land. A Trust School is a type of foundation school but forms a charitable Trust with an outside partner such as business or education charity whose aim is to raise standards and new ways of working. They buy in support services for Speech and Language, Educational Psychologists etc. The decision to become a Trust school is taken by the governing body in consultation with the parents. see more:examples of school facilities 3. Specialist Schools These schools operate in partnership with private-sector sponsors and within the requirements of the National Curriculum. They apply for specialist status to develop in one or two specialisms music, sport, languages, science, arts, business and enterprise, mathematics and computing, technology, applied learning, engineering, humanities and receive additional government funding for doing so. They are usually secondary schools but not necessarily SEN schools although SEN schools can become a specialist school  under one of the four areas of the SEN Code of Practice communication and interaction, Cognition (understanding) and learning, behaviour, emotional and social development, sensory and/or physical needs. 4. Voluntary-aided Religious or ‘faith’ schools but all can apply for a place. Run in the same way as Foundation schools but the land is usually owed by a religious organisation or charity. The governing body contributes to the building and maintenance costs employs the school’s staff and set the admissions criteria. These schools are funded partly by the governing body, by a charity and partly by the LA who also provides additional support services. 5. Voluntary-controlled Similar to voluntary aided but run by the LA who sets the admissions criteria and employs the school’s staff. The school land and buildings are normally owned by a charity, often a religious organisation which will also appoint some of the members of the governing body. 6. Independent Schools Not run by LA but funded by fees paid by parents and income from investments. They must be registered with the DfE and their standards are monitored by OfSTED or by an inspectorate approved by the Secretary of State. They set their own admissions policies and curriculum (they do not follow the National Curriculum). Teachers working in Independent schools do not have to be qualified. 7. Academies Sponsored, publicly-funded independent schools. Sponsors come from a wide range of backgrounds such as successful schools, businesses, charities, universities and faith bodies. Sponsors, are however, accountable for improving the performance of their schools. Although Academies have a close link with the LA they are not controlled or maintained by them and benefit from greater freedom than State schools to set their own pay and conditions for staff. They have freedom on how to deliver the curriculum and freedom to change the lengths of terms and school days. Identify the school you work in, state which type of school it is, and the age-range of the pupils. Swiss Garden, Shoreham-By-Sea is a ‘community school’ with approximately 410 pupils from the age of four to eleven years of age.

Person-Centered Therapy Essay Example for Free

Person-Centered Therapy Essay Person-Centered Therapy is a form of psychoanalytical counseling developed in the 1940s by Carl Rogers. The foundation of this form of therapy stemmed from Rogers’ belief that all people have an inherent desire to be good. Every person has a self-concept or an ideal self which represents what type of person they want to be or think they are. However, a person’s self-concept may not be reflected in their real life experiences and this incongruence creates psychological stress. Rogers’ main goal is to allow the client to explore where their incongruences are rooted and have the clients decide for themselves how to change their behaviors to fit their self-concept. Though the client may reflect on past experiences, Person-Centered Therapy focuses on the client’s current feelings and their current perceived self-worth. The ideal end result of this type of therapy is that the client experiences self-actualization through positive self-acceptance and personal growth. In Person-Centered Therapy the relationship between the client and counselor is crucial to eliciting any progress in the client. The counselor must provide an environment in which the client can disclose their deepest feelings comfortably and safely. This establishes trust in the relationship and allows the client to further explore their thoughts. The main components to Rogers’ theory is that the therapist must have unconditional positive regard for the client and must be able to empathize with them genuinely. To do this, the therapist should focus on the client’s positive attributes. Constant positive reinforcement given sincerely makes the client feel secure and supported and they will feel more comfortable speaking about their issues. This increases the likelihood that the client will attempt to make a change in their life. A second key element in Person-Centered Therapy is that it is non-directive therapy. The counselor does not try to direct the client in any part icular direction, but lets the client lead the discussion in their own direction. The counselor must allow the client to do so and encourage them to continue to explore that direction. This way, when the client does decide to make a change in his/her life, it is done on their own terms. That is the most important feature of this type of counseling. In terms of the Helping Skills Model, Person-Centered Therapy focuses primarily on the Exploration Stage. Rogers’ theory is based on the same principles that define the Exploration Stage. The Exploration Stage is a time where the therapist and client develop a rapport and where the therapist really learns about the client’s behavior and personality. The establishment of a trusting relationship between the therapist and client is the goal of the Exploration Stage and is critical for the Person-Centered Therapy theory to be effective. This type of therapy relies heavily on the use of restatements and open-ended questions to encourage the client to open up about their thoughts and emotions. The Exploration Stage and this type of therapy focus on mainly on the clients as they do most of the speaking. Person-Centered Therapy has its strengths and weaknesses/limitations. One important feature of this type of therapy is that the client does not become dependent on the therapist. If the therapy is done correctly, the client will become to realize that he/she is capable of changing his/her life on their own. This type of therapy empowers the client to take control of their issues and solve them independently and in favor of their own desires. Another strength of this type of therapy is that once the client realizes his/her full potential and has gained a high level of self-understanding, the need for therapy is no longer there. They can now go out into the world feeling confident about overcoming any future obstacles. A limitation for this theory of therapy is that it may seem too simple. The theory at its core basically says if someone is in a safe, unprejudiced environment and speak their thoughts to an empathizing person, they will solve their own issues. This means anybody can do this and no real professional is needed. Another limitation is that there is no direction given for clients who cannot come up with their own solutions. This can be very frustrating for both the therapist and client because there is no progress being made. If a client is not capable of realizing his/her own potential and recognize the changes that need to be in their life, there is nothing the counselor can really do without jeopardizing the high level of client autonomy this type of therapy allows. References Hill, C. E. (2009). Helping Skills: Facilitating exploration, insight, and action. (3rd ed.) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Rogers, C. R. (1992). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 827-832. (Original article published 1957).

Computer Generated 3D Animation Computer Science Essay

Computer Generated 3D Animation Computer Science Essay Computer animation (or CGI animation) is the art of creating moving images with the use of computers. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. It is also referred to as CGI (computer-generated imagery or computer-generated imaging), especially when used in films. 2. PRINCIPLES OF ANIMATION Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of stop motion animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered. For 3D animations, all frames must be rendered after modeling is complete. For 2D vector animations, the rendering process is the key frame illustration process, while tweened frames are rendered as needed. To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain, usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second. This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. To trick the eye and brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second (frame/s) or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 70 frames/s no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and brain process images. At rates below 12 frame/s most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images which detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames/s in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. Because it produces more realistic imagery computer animation demands higher frame rates to reinforce this realism. The reason no jerkiness is seen at higher speeds is due to persistence of vision. From moment to moment, the eye and brain working together actually store whatever one looks at for a fraction of a second, and automatically smooth out minor jumps. Movie film seen in theaters in the United States runs at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create this illusion of continuous movement. 3. HOW DOES IT WORK The process of creating 3D animations can be sequentially divided into three basic phases: 3D modeling which describes the process of forming the shape of an object, layout and animation which describes the motion and placement of objects within a scene, and 3D rendering which produces an image of an object. a)The 3D model describes the process of forming the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are those originated on the computer by an artist or engineer using some kind of 3D modeling tool, and those scanned into a computer from real-world objects. Models can also be produced procedurally or via physical simulation. 3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. Apart from the rendered graphic, the model is contained within the graphical data file. However, there are differences. A 3D model is the mathematical representation of any three-dimensional object. A model is not technically a graphic until it is displayed. Due to 3D printing, 3D models are not confined to virtual space. A model can be displayed visually as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, or used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations. 3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed movement. Models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. A bone/joint system is set up to deform the 3D mesh (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process called rigging, the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. b)Before objects are rendered, they must be placed (laid out) within a scene. This is what defines the spatial relationships between objects in a scene including location and size. Animation refers to the temporal description of an object, how it moves and deforms over time. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture, though many of these techniques are used in conjunction with each other. As with modeling, physical simulation is another way of specifying motion. In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a characters anatomy, analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, such as facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character Woody in Toy Story, for example, uses 700 Avars, including 100 Avars in the face. The computer does not usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but uses the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of the character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or tween between them by keyframing. Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator, and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation. In contrast, a newer method called motion capture makes use of live action. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. His or her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers, and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has their advantages, and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in the 2006 film Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Mans Chest, actor Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones. Even though Nighy himself doesnt appear in the film, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done through conventional costuming. c)Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get photorealistic images, or by applying some kind of style as in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). This step is usually performed using 3D computer graphics software or a 3D graphics API. The process of altering the scene into a suitable form for rendering also involves 3D projection which allows a three-dimensional image to be viewed in two dimensions. Lets step through the rendering of a simple image of a room with flat wood walls with a grey pyramid in the center of the room. The pyramid will have a spotlight shining on it. Each wall, the floor and the ceiling is a simple polygon, in this case, a rectangle. Each corner of the rectangles is defined by three values referred to as X, Y and Z. X is how far left and right the point is. Y is how far up and down the point is, and Z is far in and out of the screen the point is. The wall nearest us would be defined by four points: (in the order x, y, z). Below is a representation of how the wall is defined (0, 10, 0) (10, 10, 0) (0,0,0) (10, 0, 0) The far wall would be: (0, 10, 20) (10, 10, 20) (0, 0, 20) (10, 0, 20) The pyramid is made up of five polygons: the rectangular base, and four triangular sides. To draw this image the computer uses math to calculate how to project this image, defined by three dimensional data, onto a two dimensional computer screen. First we must also define where our view point is, that is, from what vantage point will the scene be drawn. Our view point is inside the room a bit above the floor, directly in front of the pyramid. First the computer will calculate which polygons are visible. The near wall will not be displayed at all, as it is behind our view point. The far side of the pyramid will also not be drawn as it is hidden by the front of the pyramid. Next each point is perspective projected onto the screen. The portions of the walls furthest from the view point will appear to be shorter than the nearer areas due to perspective. To make the walls look like wood, a wood pattern, called a texture, will be drawn on them. To accomplish this, a technique called texture mapping is often used. A small drawing of wood that can be repeatedly drawn in a matching tiled pattern (like wallpaper) is stretched and drawn onto the walls final shape. The pyramid is solid grey so its surfaces can just be rendered as grey. But we also have a spotlight. Where its light falls we lighten colors, where objects blocks the light we darken colors. Next we render the complete scene on the computer screen. If the numbers describing the position of the pyramid were changed and this process repeated, the pyramid would appear to move. 4. 3D COMPUTER GRAFICS SOFTWARE 3D computer graphics software refers to programs used to create 3D computer-generated imagery. 3D modelers are used in a wide variety of industries. The medical industry uses them to create detailed models of organs. The movie industry uses them to create and manipulate characters and objects for animated and real-life motion pictures. The video game industry uses them to create assets for video games. The science sector uses them to create highly detailed models of chemical compounds. The architecture industry uses them to create models of proposed buildings and landscapes. The engineering community uses them to design new devices, vehicles and structures as well as a host of other uses. There are typically many stages in the pipeline that studios and manufacturers use to create 3D objects for film, games, and production of hard goods and structures. Many 3D modelers are general-purpose and can be used to produce models of various real-world entities, from plants to automobiles to people. Some are specially designed to model certain objects, such as chemical compounds or internal organs. 3D modelers allow users to create and alter models via their 3D mesh. Users can add, subtract, stretch and otherwise change the mesh to their desire. Models can be viewed from a variety of angles, usually simultaneously. Models can be rotated and the view can be zoomed in and out. 3D modelers can export their models to files, which can then be imported into other applications as long as the metadata is compatible. Many modelers allow importers and exporters to be plugged-in, so they can read and write data in the native formats of other applications. Most 3D modelers contain a number of related features, such as ray tracers and other rendering alternatives and texture mapping facilities. Some also contain features that support or allow animation of models. Some may be able to generate full-motion video of a series of rendered scenes . Computer animation development equipment Computer animation can be created with a computer and animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however the rendering can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer. Because of this, video game animators tend to use low resolution, low polygon count renders, such that the graphics can be rendered in real time on a home computer. Photorealistic animation would be impractical in this context. Professional animators of movies, television, and video sequences on computer games make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take tens to hundreds of years to create on a home computer. Many powerful workstation computers are used instead. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and thus are a lot more powerful than a home computer, and are specialized for rendering. A large number of workstations (known as a render farm) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer. The result is a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years . A workstation typically costs $2,000 to $16,000, with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster, due to the more technologically advanced hardware that they contain. Pixars Renderman is rendering software which is widely used as the movie animation industry standard, in competition with Mental Ray. It can be bought at the o fficial Pixar website for about $3,500. It will work on Linux, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows based graphics workstations along with an animation program such as Maya and Softimage XSI. Professionals also use digital movie cameras, motion capture or performance capture, bluescreens, film editing software, props, and other tools for movie animation. Major software packages 3ds Max (Autodesk), originally called 3D Studio MAX, is a comprehensive and versatile 3D application used in film, television, video games and architecture for Windows. It can be extended and customized through its SDK or scripting using a Maxscript. It can use third party rendering options such as Brazil R/S, finalRender and V-Ray. Maya (Autodesk) is currently used in the film and television industry. Maya has developed over the years into an application platform in and of itself through extendability via its MEL programming language. It is available for Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. Softimage (Autodesk) Softimage (formerly Softimage|XSI) is a 3D modeling and animation package that integrates with mental ray rendering. It is feature-similar to Maya and 3DS Max and is used in the production of professional films, commercials, video games, and other media. LightWave 3D (NewTek), first developed for the Amiga, was originally bundled as part of the Video Toaster package and entered the market as a low cost way for TV production companies to create quality CGI for their programming. It first gained public attention with its use in the TV series Babylon 5 and is used in several contemporary TV series. Lightwave is also used in film production. It is available for both Windows and Mac OS X. ZBrush (Pixologic) is a digital sculpting tool that combines 3D/2.5D modeling, texturing and painting tool available for Mac OS X and Windows. It is used to create normal maps for low resolution models to make them look more detailed. Cinema 4D (MAXON) is a light package in its basic configuration. The software is for lay users. It has a lower initial entry cost due to a modular a-la-carte design for purchasing additional functions as users need them. Originally developed for the Amiga, it is also available for Mac OS X, Windows and Linux. 4. ANIMATION ALONG TIME CGI was first used in movies in 1973s Westworld, a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans, though the first use of 3D Wireframe imagery was in its sequel, Futureworld (1976), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then University of Southern California graduate students Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. The third movie to use this technology was Star Wars (1977) for the scenes with the wireframe Death Star plans and the targeting computers in the X-wings and the Millennium Falcon. The Black Hole (1979) used raster wire-frame model rendering to depict a black hole. The science fiction-horror film Alien of that same year also used a raster wire-frame model, in this case to render the image of navigation monitors in the sequence where a spaceship follows a beacon to a land on an unfamiliar planet. In 1978, graduate students at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab began work on what would have been the first full-length CGI film, The Works, and a trailer for it was shown at SIGGRAPH 1982, but the film was never completed. Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan premiered a short CGI sequence called The Genesis Wave in June 1982. The first two films to make heavy investments in Solid 3D CGI, Tron (1982) and The Last Starfighter (1984), were commercial failures, causing most directors to relegate CGI to images that were supposed to look like they were created by a computer. It was the 1993 film Jurassic Park, however, in which dinosaurs created with CGI were seamlessly integrated into live action scenes, that revolutionized the movie industry. It marked Hollywoods transition from stop-motion animation and conventional optical effects to digital techniques. The following year, CGI was used to create the special effects for Forrest Gump. The most noteworthy effects shots were those that featured the digital removal of actor Gary Sinises legs. Other effects included a napalm strike, the fast-moving Ping-Pong balls, and the digital insertion of Tom Hanks into several scenes of historical footage. Two-dimensional CGI increasingly appeared in traditionally animated films, where it supplemented the use of hand-illustrated cels. Its uses ranged from digital tweening motion between frames, to eye-catching quasi-3D effects, such as the ballroom scene in Beauty and the Beast. In 1993, Babylon 5 became the first television series to use CGI as the primary method for its visual effects (rather than using hand-built models). It also marked the first TV use of virtual sets. That same year, Insektors became the first full-length completely computer animated TV series. Soon after, in 1994, the hit Canadian CGI show ReBoot aired. Toy Story(1995) was the first fully computer-generated feature film. In 1995, the first fully computer-generated feature film, Disney-Pixars Toy Story, was a resounding commercial success. Additional digital animation studios such as Blue Sky Studios (20th Century Fox), DNA Productions (Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros.), Omation Studios (Paramount Pictures), Sony Pictures Animation (Columbia Pictures), Vanguard Animation (Walt Disney Pictures, Lions Gate Entertainment and 20th Century Fox), Big Idea Productions (Universal Pictures and FHE Pictures), Animal Logic (Warner Bros.) and Pacific Data Images (Dreamworks SKG) went into production, and existing animation companies, such as The Walt Disney Company, began to make a transition from traditional animation to CGI. Between 1995 and 2005 the average effects budget for a wide-release feature film skyrocketed from $5 million to $40 million. According to one studio executive, as of 2005[update], more than half of feature films have significant effects. However, CGI has made up for the expenditures by g rossing over 20% more than their real-life counterparts. In the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery became the dominant form of special effects. The technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles. Camera tracking software was refined to allow increasingly complex visual effects developments that were previously impossible. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes with advanced flocking and crowd simulation software. Virtual sets, in which part or all of the background of a shot is digitally generated, also became commonplace. The timeline of CGI in film and television shows a detailed list of pioneering uses of computer-generated imagery in film and television. CGI for films is usually rendered at about 1.4-6 megapixels. Toy Story, for example, was rendered at 1536  ÃƒÆ'-  922 (1.42MP). The time to render one frame is typically around 2-3 hours, with ten times that for the most complex scenes. This time hasnt changed much in the last decade, as image quality has progressed at the same rate as improvements in hardware, since with faster machines, more and more complexity becomes feasible. Exponential increases in GPUs processing power, as well as massive increases in parallel CPU power, storage and memory speed and size have greatly increased CGIs potential. In 2001, Square Pictures created the CGI film Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, which made headlines for attempting to create photo-realistic human actors. The film was not a box-office success. Some commentators have suggested this may be partly because the lead CGI characters had facial features which fell into the uncanny valley. Square Pictures produced only two more films using a similar visual style Final Flight of the Osiris, a short film which served as a prologue to The Matrix Reloaded and Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children, based on their extremely popular video game series. Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, attended each year by tens of thousands of computer professionals. Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies. This art form is called machinima. This is a chronological list of films and television programs that have been recognised as being pioneering in their use of computer-generated imagery. 5. THE FUTURE OF ANIMATION One open challenge in computer animation is a photorealistic animation of humans. Currently, most computer-animated movies show animal characters, fantasy characters, anthropomorphic machines or cartoon-like humans. The movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans. However, due to the enormous complexity of the human body, human motion, and human biomechanics, realistic simulation of humans remains largely an open problem. Another problem is the distasteful psychological response to viewing nearly perfect animation of humans, known as the uncanny valley. It is one of the holy grails of computer animation. Eventually, the goal is to create software where the animator can generate a movie sequence showing a photorealistic human character, undergoing physically-plausible motion, together with clothes, photorealistic hair, a complicated natural background, and possibly interacting with other simul ated human characters. This could be done in a way that the viewer is no longer able to tell if a particular movie sequence is computer-generated, or created using real actors in front of movie cameras. Complete human realism is not likely to happen very soon, and when it does it may have major repercussions for the film industry. For the moment it looks like three dimensional computer animation can be divided into two main directions; photorealistic and non-photorealistic rendering. Photorealistic computer animation can itself be divided into two subcategories; real photorealism (where performance capture is used in the creation of the virtual human characters) and stylized photorealism. Real photorealism is what Final Fantasy tried to achieve and will in the future most likely have the ability to give us live action fantasy features as The Dark Crystal without having to use advanced puppetry and animatronics, while Antz is an example on stylistic photorealism . None of them mentioned are perfected as of yet, but the progress continues. The non-photorealistic/cartoonish direction is more like an extension of traditional animation, an attempt to make the animation look like a three dimensional version of a cartoon, still using and perfecting the main principles of animation articulated by the Nine Old Men, such as squash and stretch. While a single frame from a photorealistic computer-animated feature will look like a photo if done right, a single frame vector from a cartoonish computer-animated feature will look like a painting (not to be confused with cel shading, which produces an even simpler look).